Category: Maintenance: High

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Water Spreading Bunds

Similar names: diversion embankments, diversion bunds, low lying crescent embankments, spate irrigation (general term).

Water spreading bunds is a technique in the category of floodwater farming (also called spate irrigation) which consists of the use of earthen bunds, usually applied where trapezoidal (regular) bunds are not suitable. Regular bunds may not be suited for area where runoff rates are high and they would be damaged, or where the crops may suffer from flooding.

The goal of the water spreading bunds is, as the name suggests, to spread water and not to confine it, like trapezoidal bunds do. They are intended to spread floodwater that has been either diverted from a watercourse or has reached the floodplain. The technique of water spreading bunds is very site-specific, as it can only be used on lands close to a watercourse, usually on alluvial fans or floodplains, and is characterized by almost flat slopes (up to 1%). Water spreading bunds are usually applied on even lands with deep and fertile soil, with a precipitation rate within 150-300 mm. Therefore, hyper-arid or arid areas where floodwater farming is often the only possibility to achieve fodder or crop production.

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Gully Rehabilitation Stem Cuttings

Similar names: Gully Plugging with Stem Cuttings, Check Dams from Stem Cuttings, Brushwood Check Dams, Live Check Dams

Gully Rehabilitation Stem Cuttings is an intervention that “plugs” particularly active gullies and streams by building Check Dams made of Stem Cuttings to control erosion and runoff. These living barriers are efficient in slowing down runoff water and stopping sediment buildup in the gullies. Field research has proven that they work well in soils of sandy/loamy texture, where the performances of these dams are greater than ones made of stone dams due to rooted poles and the stabilised root system of the living barrier.

Stem Cuttings involve taking sections of woody stems from suitable plants and inserting them into the soil in a gully or erosion-prone area. These stems will develop roots and grow into new plants, helping to stabilize the soil and prevent further erosion. Stem Cuttings are cost-effective and environmentally friendly, promoting natural vegetation growth, and enhancing biodiversity, and ecosystem health. They also provide erosion control once established, preventing further degradation of the gully.

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Contour Bunds

Similar names: Level Bunds, Contour Stone Bunds, Earthen Bunds, Contour Bunding

Contour Bunds are a form of micro-catchment technique and are a very simple and cheap form of water control. The bunds are created along the contour lines. There are also small earth ties, perpendicular to the bunds, that subdivide the system into micro-catchments. Contour Bunds are very similar to Negarim in that they aim to slow down runoff and improve water infiltration in the soil. For this reason, Contour Bunds are often associated with the cultivation of crops, fodder or trees which are grown between the bunds. Contour Bunds also help to control soil erosion. Contour Bunds for tree planting is suitable in arid and semi-arid areas with rainfall rates between 200 and 750 mm. They can be applied on slopes of up to 5% but they require even terrains, without the presence of gullies or rills. The soil should preferably be 1.5 to 2 m deep in order to ensure proper root development and water storage.

Contour Bunds are also a cost-effective nature-based solution, which is relatively cheap, especially on a larger scale and on even lands because less earth is moved. The intervention could be combined with machinery, which additionally enables the technique to be scaled up to larger areas. Finally, fodder crops can be grown before the trees become productive, which as a result could lead to a reduction in the amount of runoff that can reach the trees.

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Multi-storey Cropping

Multi-storey cropping, or multi-tier cropping, is a production system characterized by an extremely efficient utilization of space by focusing on both vertical space and ground arrangement. Crops of different heights, stages of maturation, sunlight requirements, and root systems are grown in tandem. By selecting crops of different heights, canopy patterns, and root systems, multiple layers of canopy (2 to 5 layers) can be grown on a farm. This farming system seeks to maximize farm productivity and income and usually involves cultivating entirely cash crops. It is best suited to smallholder farms in tropical zones that receive high levels of sunlight. 

Multi-storey cropping can be implemented in an intercrop or mixed-crop arrangement. Crops may also be planted in a more random arrangement where practitioners/farmers have specific knowledge of the local environmental and ecological system and which crops may be optimal for their context. Multi-storey cropping enables the diversification of crops produced and often brings higher yields per unit area than mono-crop settings. This type of crop-growing system leverages the synergies between plants to enhance productivity (foliage size, shade formed, nutrients used, etc.). Multi-storey cropping systems also place a strong emphasis on nutrient recycling;  these systems allow organic matter to re-enter the soil, thus improving the structure and fertility of soils (this can be aided further by actively implementing Mulching). Finally, a multi-storey cropping system reduces soil erosion by increasing the soil cover and water retention of an area.

Some of the main advantages of multi-storey cropping are the increased long-term productivity of farms due to improved soil health and the survival of different crop varieties thanks to the provision of shade by taller plants. The provision of shade and multiple crop types can increase soil fertility and restore the nutrient content of the soil. As a result, this can lead to long-term productivity of the soil which can contribute to long-term food security and quality due to improved soil health. Furthermore, what is also observed is a reduced exposure of farmers/implementors to market volatility due to diversified sources of income from planting multiple crops. This on its own can result in a potential increase in farm income (once the system is complete) due to diversification of income screams through the planting of multiple crops, and reduction in crop vulnerability (for crops which prefer shade). Finally, when the intervention is applied is can result in a decreased flood risk/flood damage due to the increased soil cover and dense vegetation preventing excessive water runoff downstream.

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Tree Islands

Similar Names: applied nucleation, cluster planting, Assisted Natural Regeneration, Tree Island Planting

Tree islands, also known as “applied nucleation” or “cluster planting”, are a forest restoration technique that combines tree planting and natural regeneration. The primary goal of tree islands is to restore degraded landscapes by accelerating natural forest regeneration. It involves the strategic planting of small clusters of trees (“tree islands”), creating focal points for ecosystem restoration and accelerating natural regeneration in between the islands. They enhance natural forest recovery, rely on animal species for the dispersal of native tree seeds, and promote high levels of native biodiversity. 

The tree islands act as biodiversity hotspots, improving soil fertility, water retention, and microclimate, creating resilient ecosystems. They increase the availability of tree seeds and attract seed dispersers. They also provide shade, suppressing sun-loving plants that can overgrow in the area,  leaving no space for trees to establish. By creating tree islands, a base is offered from which the forest can re-establish itself and grow back much faster than conventional natural regeneration approaches.

Overall, tree islands represent an innovative and promising approach to forest restoration, offering a sustainable method for accelerating the recovery of temperate, tropical, and subtropical forests. It is a cost-effective forest restoration technique that uses only about 20% of the trees that would be needed for a whole forest plantation of the same area. This makes it more accessible and the structure more natural.

When implementing this intervention in a certain area, it is best to involve the community. It can even become a community-driven initiative, with community members working on the implementation, monitoring, and maintenance of the tree islands. This enables them to play an active role in local forest regeneration.

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Fencing

Fencing around eroded soils, rills and gullies is a cheap and low-maintenance form of sediment catchment, soil and water runoff prevention on gentle, moderate and steep slopes. Three types of fencing are detailed in this intervention about their prevention of different types of soil erosion at varying topographies.

  1. Silt Fences → Softer intervention for sediment catchment, preventing runoff and wind displacement on rills, arid fields or gentle hillsides. 
  2. Woven Fences → Harder intervention for slope stabilisation and sediment build-up in gullies and rocky mountainous landscapes.
  3. Biotrampas → Harder intervention for rock catchment, landslides and slope stabilisation in gullies and heavily eroded, steep mountainous landscapes.
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Kitchen Gardens

Similar names: Community Gardens, Permagardens, Permaculture Gardens, Vegetable Gardens, Urban Gardens

Kitchen Gardens consist of pieces of land close to households in which plants such as vegetables, herbs and fruits for use in the kitchen are cultivated. These gardens can include space for livestock, (fruit & nut) trees and hedges cultivated for fodder. Kitchen Gardens have long been practised to provide subsistence and a variety of food for small households, whilst also providing an additional source of income when surpluses are generated and sold at the market. With a few adjustments, this practice can be adapted to most kinds of ecosystems, and even in highly urbanised areas, with the aid of pots and containers. This intervention is most suitable for flat or gently sloped terrains (0-5%), however, to obtain a lower slope in hillside conditions, it can be combined with Eyebrow Terraces. Gardens can also be created in schools and other public facilities, involving the entire community.

Kitchen Gardens offer socio-economic benefits by diversifying income streams, reducing food expenses, and empowering women and youth through their involvement in establishment and maintenance. They enhance food security by providing diverse, nutritious crops locally and serve as social hubs for education on food production and healthy soils, positively impacting mental health. Ecologically, they promote biodiversity, improve soil health through organic practices, and conserve water resources through efficient irrigation systems. In summary, Kitchen Gardens contribute to increased household income, reduced food expenses, improved dietary diversity, and enhanced ecological sustainability, making them valuable assets for communities.

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Alley Cropping

Similar names: Alley Farming, Nalaad, Intercropping, Farming with Shade Trees

Alley Cropping is a farming method whereby trees and shrubs are planted in rows, and crops are grown in the spaces between these rows. This technique helps reduce soil erosion by slowing down water runoff and increasing water absorption capacity of the soil. The trees protect crops from strong winds, provide habitats for wildlife, and attract pollinators such as bees. Planting different species of trees or shrubs can bring additional benefits as they may be harvested to provide fodder for animals, food, firewood, or materials for mulching.

Farmers can start Alley Cropping on a small scale by planting hedgerows around their fields or farms. On larger farms, the distance between the rows can be increased to enable the use of machinery. Common crops used for Alley Cropping include corn, soybeans, wheat, and potatoes. Often, these crops are combined with trees that produce valuable products like hardwood timber or nuts. This technique is flexible and can be adapted to meet the specific needs of any farm, making it a practical way to improve productivity and sustainability.

NOTE: This method works particularly well in humid and semi-humid regions, but has also been successful in dry areas when undertaken with careful planning. In drier regions, it is important to ensure that hedgerows do not compete with crops for soil moisture.

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Miyawaki Forest

Similar names: Tiny Forests, Fast Growing Forests, Urban Forests, Potential Natural Vegetation

The Miyawaki method is a reforestation technique that entails the growing of a forest within a few decades – instead of centuries – by taking into account the succession of plants and plant diversity that naturally occurs in forests. This method was first conceptualised in Japan by Dr. Akira Miyawaki and has been successfully implemented in areas with relatively high rainfall rates such as India, Malaysia, and South America. However, it has also been successfully practised in other/locations/, such as the Mediterranean; the steppe zone of Jordan; and the Persian Gulf region.

This technique is particularly effective as it imitates the structure of a mature forest. It aims at recreating all the different levels of vegetation and combinations of species that would naturally occur in a native forest without human intervention – defined as “potential natural vegetation”. Practitioners must carefully select the right indigenous vegetation best adapted to local conditions, and they need to commit to watering and mulching the seedlings during the first years of implementation of the intervention. One of the advantages of using this technique is that it allows for the quick regrowth of a dense forest rich in biodiversity which can retain rainfall and create a cooling microclimate effect. Furthermore, the maintenance is comparatively low, as the forest becomes self-sufficient after 3 years.

NOTE: The implementation of this technique can be expensive as it requires a lot of seedlings for a relatively small area. However, it allows to obtain a fully functional forest in a short time, with minimal maintenance needed.

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Improved Fallows

Similar names: Mixed Improved Fallows, Mixed Intercropping, Shade Trees, Relay Intercropping

Cultivating Mixed and Improved Fallows is a technique that aims at keeping yields high while maintaining the soil’s fertility and moisture. This can be achieved by growing two or more species in succession, sown at different times of the year on the same piece of land which positively influences each other while providing beneficial soil nutrients. This newly replenished soil should therefore never be left exposed but always covered by crops and mulch. Traditionally, farmers used to leave a section of their land to “rest” (= the fallow) for one year or more after a period of intense cultivation. This allows the soil to be covered by natural vegetation which restores nutrients, organic matter, and soil microbial activity necessary to make the soil fertile. However, with the increasing demand for resources, this practice is rarely used. To ensure long-term soil fertility, some farmers have come up with the solution of planting fallow plants, which can either be a tree, a shrub or a herbaceous cover crop – often a leguminous species, during the fallow phase. Fallow plants can then be used to: provide fodder, break cycles of pests (as some species are natural pest-repellents), attract honeybees, keep weeds away, shade crops, increase soil activity, and increase biodiversity. 

Mixed Improved Fallows can perform even better than having one fallow species on rotation. This is when two or more fallow species are combined with one traditional crop. Usually, one of the two fallow species grows to a tall height providing shade, while the other is usually a “nitrogen fixing” plant which restores nutrients in the soil.